WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE AND
PAKISTAN
By:
DR.
S. KHUSRO IQBAL
khusro11@yahoo.com
In general the
“women’s Suffrage” is defined as the “right
of women to vote and to stand for political office” and is unambiguously
stated as a right under the Convention on the “Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women”, as adopted by the United Nations in 1979. The
women's suffrage has generally been recognized after political campaigns were
initiated around the globe to get the right of vote for women. In many
countries it was granted before universal suffrage.
Universal
suffrage is also called as universal adult suffrage because historically it was
used when the adult male citizens were given right to vote as whole; however
when the right of vote is extended to minors and non-citizens then the process
is called as “Demeny Voting” (2)
The term “Demeny
voting” (3) was coined by
The first movements toward universal suffrage occurred in the
early 19th century, and focused on removing property requirements for voting.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the focus of the universal suffrage
movement was the extension of the right to vote to women. Although suffrage has
two necessary components, the right to vote and opportunities to vote, however
in most of the part of the world the “universal suffrage” is associated only
with the right to vote and ignores the other aspect through controlled or
engineered electoral process and or by reducing the frequency that an incumbent
government consults the electorate. In the present world the right to vote is
not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth or social status under the
universal suffrage.
In most of the
countries the concept of full universal suffrage (inclusion of women in voting
and holding political offices) followed about 10 to 20 years after universal
male suffrage. Notable exceptions were France, where women could not vote until
1945, in Italy until 1946, in Belgium until 1948 and Switzerland until 1971.
In the first modern democracies, the vote was restricted to
those with property and wealth, which almost always meant a minority of the
male population. In some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as
restrictions on voters of a given religion. In all modern democracies the number
of people who could vote increased progressively with time. The democratic
movement of the late 19th century under the unification of liberals and social
democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan “Equal and Common
Suffrage”.
The limited
voting rights were gained by women in Sweden, Finland and some western U.S.
states in the late 19th century due to the influence of many International
organizations especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (1904)
First in 1893,
New Zealand, then a self-governing British colony, granted adult women the
right to vote and later the self-governing British colony of South Australia
did the same in 1895 but they also allowed women to stand for political office.
Australia federated in 1901, and women acquired the right to vote and stand in
federal elections from 1902, though uneven restrictions on Aboriginal women
voting in national elections were not completely removed until 1962. (4)
The first
European country to introduce women's suffrage was the Grand Duchy of Finland,
then part of the Russian Empire, which also produced the world's first female
members of parliament in the 1907 parliamentary elections. Norway followed,
granting full women's suffrage in 1913. (5) In most Western countries, women's
suffrage came after World War-1 with some important late adopters being France
in 1944 and Switzerland in 1971. (6)
Women's Suffrage in Some Widely Practiced Religions
Ø Christianity
The Pope is only
elected by the College of Cardinals. Women are not appointed as cardinals, so
women cannot vote for the Pope. The female offices of Abbess or Mother Superior
are elective, the choice being made by the secret votes of the nuns belonging
to the community. (7)
Ø Hinduism
In both ancient and contemporary history of Hinduism women
occupying positions of ecclesiastical and spiritual authority were relatively
rare due to social (laukik) and scriptural (shastrik) perception of asceticism
and spiritual leadership as incompatible with female nature. (8) However,
textual sources within HIndu tradition that specifically forbid asceticism for
women are few, and there are sufficient examples of women occupying these roles
in Hinduism, both in the past and in present. (8)
Ø Judaism
Women are denied the vote and the ability to be elected to
positions of authority in many Orthodox Jewish synagogues and religious
organizations. (9) However in the non
orthodox branches of Judaism, especially in the United States, women are not
denied to vote and the ability to be elected to positions of authority (10)
Ø Islam
The Islam allows the participation of both men and women in
the political modifications and considers it as the responsibility of the whole
Islamic nation, whether men or women, in order to safeguard general interests
of the population. Islam considers that enjoying proper usage of the political
rights by members of the Islamic society, irrespective of gender, will lead to
the progress and development of the society.
Although women were included in the process of electing the
Caliph during the Orthodox Caliphate (632-661) but women’s rights vary in
Islamic countries in the modern era. The question of women's right to become
imams (the religious leader) is highly disputed among various Islamic schools
of thought.
There are many examples in the early Islamic history that
along with men the competent women were also involved in the in certain
political activities like Counseling in affairs of state, to give opinion for
declaration or set off the war, speech
on virtuous matters, finger-pointing to the unjustified acts (especially
related to women), participation in the process of choosing the honest and
capable individual to rule the country, working towards the establishment of
institutions which are important in the political process like auditing, trade
unions, research, preaching etc. (11)
‘Al Tabari’ and other many classical Islamic scholars have
supported the idea of female leadership.(12)
In early Islamic history, women including Hazrat Aisha, Ume Warqa and
Samra Binte Wahaib (May Allah’s peace be on them) took part in political
activities.(13)
Other historical Muslim female leaders include Razia Sultana,
who ruled the Sultanate of Delhi from 1236 to 1239 (14) and Shajarat ad-Durr
who ruled the Egypt from 1250 to 1257 (15).
Islam has considered woman’s equality with man in what we
call today “political rights”, she has the right to
participate in public affairs of her country at the local and International
levels. Therefore, she has the right of election and accession to political and
administrative offices. There is nothing wrong with all these as long as
Islamic doctrines and teachings would be highly guided by both the women and
the society. It becomes palpable to visualize by glancing the contents of the
Holy Qur’an and prophetic traditions where there are substantial examples of
women who participated in several discussions and argument with a number of
Sahabat (companions) including the Prophet Muhammad (PBH) himself in respect of
some arising political concerns and issues related to them. History has
recorded that during the Caliphate of Hazrat Umar Ibn al-Khattab (RA), a woman
argued with him publically in the mosque and logically proved her point;
subsequent to which Hazarat Umer (RA) declared in the presence of people that the
“woman is right and Umar (RA) is wrong (16).
Nevertheless, Islam considers human thought and expression as
one of the major and fundamental rights and freedoms that contribute immensely
to the political stability and progress in any society or nation. These rights
and freedoms belong to the entire people regardless of gender, color or race as
long as the due process with dignity is followed.
Moreover, it is worth mentioning that history has shown that
Islam has respected and encouraged the freedom of expression. This can be
palpably seen in the story of Hazrat Salman Alfarsiy (RA) in the battle of
Ahzab where he openly expressed his views before the Prophet Hazrat Muhammad
(P.B.H) suggesting the Digging of the trench to combat the invaders and finally
his opinion was approved by the Prophet (P.B.U.H)
Further with Hazrat Khaulat the wife of Hazrat Zaid bin
Thabit (peace be on them) confidently expressed her reservations, with the Holy
Prophet (PBH), about her husband and argued for her freedom to choose the
continuation of her marital status consequent to which the Almighty Allah
reveals the solution in Suratul Mujadla:
“Certainly Allah has heard the speech of the one who argues with you, [O
Muhammad], concerning her husband and directs her complaint to Allah. And Allah
hears your dialogue; indeed, Allah is Hearing and seeing”. [Al Mujadla: 01)
In addition to the above, women have the right to participate
and belong to any peaceful assemblies and associations as long as Islamic
teachings are strictly adhered to.
The Sheikh Zoubir Bouchikhi, who is the Imam of the Islamic
Society of Greater Houston’s Southeast Mosque declares that nothing in Islam
specifically allows or disallows voting
right of the women. (17) Until recently many Muslim nations were
non-democratic but gradually they have started allowing their citizens to have
some level of voting and control over their government. The progressive grant
of women’s suffrage in majority of Muslim countries is indicative of the fact
that religion was never against this right of women but actually the delay was
due to the local cultures.
It is relevant to mention that the “Azerbaijan” has had
women's suffrage since 1918.
Women's suffrage in Pakistan
In Pakistan women enjoy full suffrage since its independence
year of 1947. When Pakistan was part of India until 1947 many Muslim women
leaders from all classes actively supported the Pakistan movement during the
period of 1940s. Their movement was led by wives and other relatives of leading
politicians. Women were sometimes organized into large-scale public
demonstrations. Before 1947 there was a tendency for the Muslim women in Punjab
to vote for the Muslim League while their men folk supported the Unionist Party
(18)
In 1988 Pakistan became the first Muslim Majority state with
a female Prime Minister and subsequent to which in the past several decades a
number of countries where Muslims are in majority like Indonesia, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Turkey, Kyrgyzstan etc the women have led their countries. It is
reported that nearly one-third of the Parliament of Egypt consists of women.
(19) In 2004, an Afghan woman Massouda
Jalal ran for Afghan Presidency. Females also have a significant representation
in the Afghan Parliament. A number of Afghan women are also ministers, governors
and business owners. Azra Jafri became the first woman Mayor in Afghanistan. In
the elections of October 2004 women voted for the first time, in Afghan
history, in their Presidential election. Mrs Fehmida Mirza, a doctor by
profession and a leading politician of PPP, became the first female speaker of
the country's National assembly in 2008. Hina Rabbani Khar, also a PPP leader,
became the youngest and first female Foreign Minister of Pakistan in 2011.
Apart from them, there are many prominent female leaders in Pakistan's
provincial and national assembly’s who are playing vital role in the country's
politics.
Although the fourth military ruler of Pakistan the General
Zia –ul- haq (1977-88) is notorious for his conservative leanings and his era
is regarded as retrogressive for women rights. The Hudood laws passed during
his period still are cause of concern for women right activists in Pakistan.
However this era also saw some significant steps towards realization of women
rights. A new women’s division was established in 1979 at the cabinet
secretariat level. Most importantly his rule saw an unprecedented inclusion of
females in work force. This is particularly important for its after affects on
changing the status of women in the family & society.
In past the Pakistani women had been subject to stringent
behavioral controls due to religious and cultural reasons. Usually governments
in Pakistan have been reluctant to take any clear ideological position on women
right issues. Policy makers would at best try not to take any decision by what
Bacharach and Baratz (1963) call “the mobilization of bias”. The most important
reason for this non-decision has been the perceived influence of religion and
religious parties over masses. However Pakistani Governments since 2001 have
adopted a very progressive stance on women right issues. A comprehensive
national policy for development and empowerment of women was announced by the
president of Pakistan in September, 2002. A national action plan for achieving
the proclaimed objectives of the policy was also adopted. Some important
decisions taken in that particular policy area were reservation of 17 % of
seats in parliament and 33 % of seats in local bodies for women, reservation of
05 % quota in all government jobs and 10 % quota in central superior services,
ratification of convention on elimination of discrimination against women,
passing law against honor killing in 2005, establishment of district resource
centers for women etc are of far reaching consequence in relation to women
socio political right including the right to vote.
After creation of Pakistan, however, women organization such
as all Pakistan Women Association (APWA) restricted themselves to charitable
and welfare activities. Women activism truly rose to prominence during General
Zia's period mainly as reaction to his islamization campaign. Women action
forum was established in September, 1981 to protest against “Hudood laws”. The
forum actively opposed the law as discriminatory against women. Over the years
these women groups have assumed the character of women right ‘issue movements’.
Due to their consistent efforts these women groups are able to put women agenda
on political spectrum. By now no political party manifesto is complete without
mention of women rights and right to vote. Another important contribution of
these groups is the issuance of public discourse on the issues which hitherto
were taboos.
During General ®
Pervez Musharaf regime all these groups had become insiders. Hence their role
in policy changes got important. Prominent women activists as Shaheen Sardar
Ali, Zubeda Jalal, Attya Anyatullah etc joined the
government as Ministers and Advisors. Shaheen Sardar was also the founder chair
person of “Commission on Status of Women”.
The constitution
of 1973 passed during first government of the Peoples Party guarantees equal
civil and political rights to women. Fundamental rights under articles 8 to 28
guarantee the equality of all citizens before the law and forbid discrimination
on basis of sex. In Pakistan the women activists are now members of advisory
comities and working groups and they write policy papers and reports. The
Pakistani feminist groups have made international alliances, through UN forum
and international conferences and global networks. Important steps taken in
Pakistan towards women progress include establishment of a women bank, women
welfare programs in health and education and many symbolic steps like release
of women prisoners etc.
Women’s role in general elections 2013
However despite
all continuous efforts for woman’s suffrage in the present time the gender
divide is systematic in Pakistan’s electoral system. The women are not only
barred from voting or contesting rather they are not even registered as voters
in many areas of Pakistan. In fact, Pakistan counted 11 million fewer women
registered voters than men in the recent elections of 2013.
The statistics
provided by election commission of Pakistan (ECP) paint a gloomy picture of the
gender divide, which is more pronounced in some parts of Pakistan. In Khyber
Pakhtun Khwa (KPK) only one in three voters was a woman. The highest share of
women voters was observed for Islamabad and the Federal Territories where women
represented 46 per cent of all voters.
According to the
many local newspapers some parts of Khyber Pakhtun Khwa, where the share of
women registered voters was already the lowest in Pakistan, political parties
agreed not to allow women to vote in the elections. This is one of those odd
moments of consensus in Pakistan where consensus on political matters is not
only rare, but almost non-existent. (20)
The Associated
Press recently reported that in the 2008 elections, 564 polling districts
recorded zero votes cast by women. This was partly a result of an understanding
reached between political parties to deny women the right to vote. Similar
agreements were revealed in the 2013 elections where candidates in Upper and
Lower Dir, to name a few, agreed to bar women from voting in the provincial
assembly elections.
But apart from
this gloomy aspect there is a bright picture as well; on the whole, 161 women
contested for 60 reserve positions in total 342 seats in the lower house of the
parliament known as National Assembly whereas in provincial assembly the number
of women contenders is 355, higher than 116 from the last general elections
held in 2008.
Most of the
female contenders in 2008 elections came from political families but this year
many new and young women took part in politics mainly due to the emerging party
Pakistan Tehrik-e-Insaf (PTI) which awarded party tickets to many young men and
women in this election.
In last general
elections there were many youngsters who were chanting slogans in favor of PTI
throughout Pakistan, including Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar etc because
of their ideology and slogans for “change”. The youth was commonly claiming
that "Our country is rich with natural resources, people are hardworking
and talented but we lack good governance and it is Imran Khan who would bring a
positive change in the country if he came to power because he is honest and
hardworking,".
Like PTI,
Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz (PML-N) also awarded many party tickets to women
including PML-N chairman Nawaz Sharif' s daughter
Marium Nawaz. PML-N also enjoys a huge support of Pakistani women since its
advent in 1988.
In PML (N)
election rallies many women were also found chanting in favor of Mr. Nawaz
Sharif because they were of the opinion that it is only “he” who can bring
prosperity in Pakistan. One of the voters was shown on “Geo & Dawn TV”
election coverage, who told her name Shanaz bibi, when she was saying that
"PML-N always worked for the uplift of poor. They have launched many mega
projects in the country when they were in power and they would do more efforts
if they came to power again,"
According to the
country's Election Commission, the gap between male and female voters in
Pakistan is over 10 million and most of the unregistered voters are residents
of rural areas who depend on their male family members to take them out for
registering and casting votes.
According to the
record of National Data Base Registration Authority (NADRA), over 6 million
women in the country does not even have their National Identity Card due to
which they cannot be included in the circle of voters.
According to the
report of Election Commission, not a single vote was cast in 564 polling
stations in 2008 mainly because of the ban imposed on women voters by hardliner
Muslim clerics in northwest part of the country.
Local media reported
that women in the country's northwestern areas of Lower Dir and South
Waziristan have been barred from casting votes as they believe it is against
the local customs to give voting rights to women.
Despite all
odds, women are still having quite influential position in Pakistani politics.
Former chairman of Pakistan People’s Party Ms. Benazir Bhutto was famous not
only in Pakistan but across the world due to her charismatic personality and
political wit. An Oxford graduate, Ms. Bhutto took charge of PPP following the
execution of her father Mr. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and ruled the country for more
than five years.
Pakistan’s electoral system allows for reserved seats for
women to address the gender bias in electoral outcomes. While the motivation
behind the move for reserved seats is commendable, the outcome hardly meets the
intent. In fact, the reserved seats have rested more power in the hands of a
handful of men who appoint their favorite women to the legislature. It would
have helped if the women alone elected the women candidates for the reserved
seats instead of the richest and the most influential half a dozen Pakistani
men. (20)
Since the research has dwelt on the women’s political rights
in Islam, there is need for Muslim women to fully stand by the dictates of
Shari’ah and appreciate the Islamic approach of the legislation of their rights
in general and the political rights in particular since the approaches adopted
by the non- Islamic religions and practices negate humanity and contradict
human and feminine nature.
In addition,
Islamic nations and Muslim communities are urged to fully implement the Islamic
provisions on women political Rights and make further study on it with a view
to inculcating moral obligations and norms in the Muslim communities and beyond
for the sustenance of everlasting peace and stability among the teeming Umma
and beyond.
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